The worst working conditions and wages prevail among slaves.   Slaves are property of their masters, so they are treated like any other property: bought and sold, bred like other beasts of burden for slave offspring, and fed, clothed and sheltered just to maintain life and health sufficient to live, work and breed.   A slave can use only sabotage, work slowdown, rebellion, and escape to improve his or her work conditions.

In August, 1619, 20 African blacks were landed in Jamestown from a Dutch shop for sale as indentured servants.   They will become the first black slaves in British colonies.   That same year, 100 London slum children are sent to Virginia as apprentices. ^{Schles 37}

On May 18, 1652, Rhode Island enacts the first American law making slavery illegal. ^{Schles 51}

In 1664, the Maryland colony mandates the lifelong servitude of black slaves.   Later, New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia pass similar laws. ^{Schles 56}

In 1671, Carolina defeats the Coosa Indians and enslave some of the captives. ^{Schles 58}

Mechanics in Philadelphia object to the competition to their craft by hired black slaves. ^{Schles 73}

On June 7, 1712, The Pennsylvania representative assembly bans the importation of slaves into the Pennsylvania colony. ^{Schles 75}

The first black slaves arrive in French Louisiana on June 6, 1716. ^{Schles 77}

The objective of a worker strike is to hurt the company more than the strikers, who lose wages, so that the company will give in to worker demands on working conditions, wages, or both.   The company; that is, its shareholders, is hurt by lost profits during the strike.   Consumers pay indirectly for strikes by shortages in goods or services, or higher prices due to lost productivity.   The workers will not gain financially from the strike if it lasts several months, since the gains probably will not offset the lost wages.   However, the threat of a strike may obtain early company concessions, in which case the workers gain without sustaining a comparable loss.   A few companies, like Eastman-Kodak, IMB, and Corning Glass Works, paid and treated their employees well enough that no strikes ever occurred and no labor unions were established.

Strikes occurred throughout American history.   Below are listed a few of the more notable ones.

In 1741 in Boston, ship-caulkers do not accept notes as payment instead of wages.   Also, journeymen bakers in New York City strike. ^{Schles 87}

In 1746, Savannah, GA carpenters strike for better working conditions. ^{Schles 88}

In 1786, the printers of Philadelphia strike to successfully obtain a wage of $6 per week. ^{Carruth 103}

In 1799, the Federal Society of Cordwainers (shoemakers) of Philadelphia called a 9-day strike.   This is the first organized labor action in the United States.   The requested wage increases are granted.   When this society strikes again on May 25, 1805, their employer appeals to the judiciary which arrests its leaders for criminal conspiracy.   This is the first employer appeal to a judiciary. ^{Schles 172,182}

In 1800, sailors struck in New York City for wage increases from $10 to $14 per month. ^{Carruth 121}

In 1806, the first industry-wide strike occurred when 200 journeymen shoemakers in New York City obtained a nationwide strike order for higher wages from Journeyman Cordwainers' Society of Baltimore .   Strike leaders were indicted for criminal conspiracy.   They were found guilty and fined $1 each. ^{Carruth 133}

In 1824, male and female weavers struck against a proposed decrease in wages and increase in hours at Pawtucket, RI. ^{Carruth 171}

In 1825, a strike was called by 600 carpenters in Boston. ^{Carruth 173}

On August 1, 1833, journeymen shoemakers in Geneva, NY, strike for higher wages.   They suceed and their cause leads to an 1835 New York court case, The People v. Fisher where strikes are declared illegal. ^{Schles 228,232}

On February 22, 1860, shoemakeers in Lynn, MA, strike for higher wages and union recognition, after being joined by shoemakers in MA, NH, and ME to include 25 towns and 20,000 workers. The strike followed the introduction of machinery with youngsters brought in to operate the machines.   Skilled workers' wages were cut to $3.00 per week.   The strike was organized by The Mechanics' Association formed in 1859 at Lynn.   ON April 10, owners agreed to a 10% increase in wages.   The union was not recognized. ^{Carruth 263}

In February, 1860, shoemakeers in Lynn, MA, strike for higher wages, after being joined by shoemakers in MA, NH, and ME.   In April, owners offered higher wages. ^{Schles 277}

On January 4, 1870, telegraph operators strike throughout the country.   By now, union membership is abut 300,000, since workers realize that collective bargaining is the only effective way to deal with company management. ^{Schles 315}

On November 17, 1881, Samuel Gompers founds the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions, which later becomes the American Federation of Labor (AFofL).   It is ritual-free, disassociated with socialists and anarchists, and has socially-acceptable goals. ^{Schles 347}

In 1867, Oliver Hudson Kelley founded the secret society called the Patrons of Husbandry, which adopted granges; that is, meeting places.   The "Grangers", as members were called, were the first to organize men and women farmers and politicians against railroads.   They convinced state legislators to pass Granger Laws, which were upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1877.   These laws regulated railroad rates in interstate commerce and to regulate commerce in general for "a public interest".   It sought and obtained rural mail delivery, parcel post, pure food laws, conservation, and women's suffrage.   Later, the Grangers became less militant and more educational and social.   Granger activities promoted the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level and provided many principles for other labor groups to follow. ^{Schles 363}

In June, 1882, the iron and steel industries experience many strikes under the influence of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel workers.   Freight handlers also strike rail transportation facilities. ^{Schles 262}

In April, 1884, the Hocking Valley coal miners strike over wages and working conditions.   They lose their fight and return to work. ^{Schles 353}

On March 6, 1886, the Knights of Labor struck Jay Gould's Missouri-Pacific railroad.   Over 9,000 striers ties up 5,000 miles of track.   The strike ended in May with no wage gains when the workers run out of money.   The workers lost $900,000 in wages, the company, $3,000,000 in revenue. ^{Schles 360}

On January 28, 1889, transit workers struck and tied up traffic in New York City.   Workers did not achieve any gains. ^{Carruth 350}

On July 6, 1892, 5,000 Homestead Steel workers from the Amalgamated Associattion of Iron and Steel Workers strike and fight 300 Pinkerton guards brought in by plant manager Henry Clay Frick.   Some 20 workers are killed and 300 Pinkerton guards are wounded.   7,000 state troopers restore order on July 9, and by November 14 the strike is over.   Strikers lost their jobs to strikebreakers. ^{Schles 374}

On July 11, 1892, silver miners in Coeur d'Alene, ID, strike. ^{Schles 374}

On April 5, 1894, strikers riot in Connellsville, PA, and 11 men are killed. ^{Schles 378}

On September 6, 1869, 108 miners are killed by suffociation in a coal mine accident in Avondale, PA. ^{Schles 314}

On February 13, 1894, a collapsed coal mine in Plymouth, PA, killed 13 miners. ^{Schles 378}

On August 24, 1894, 37 men died in a Franklin, WA mine accident. ^{Schles 378}

On Dec. 6, 1907, a coal mine explosion in Monangah, WV, killed 361 miners. ^{Carruth 406}

On November 28, 1908, an explosion at the Marianna Mine in Monongahela, PA, killed 100 miners. ^{Schles 416}

On November 13, 1909, 259 miners are killed in an explosion at the St. Paul mine in Cherry, IL. ^{Schles 418}

On October 18, 1648, The Shoemakers of Boston were permitted to meet and choose officers. ^{Carruth 19}

In 1833, all the trade unions in New York join to form the General Trades Union with Ely Moore its first President. ^{Schles 229}

In 1852, journeymen printers in Cincinnati found the National Typographical Union. ^{Schles 262}

In 1863, the brotherhood of Railway Locomotives Engineers is founded. ^{Schles 287}

In August, 1866, workers meet in a National Labor Congress in Baltimore, MD, to focus unsafe and unhealthy working conditions in mills, factories, mines and railroads. ^{Schles 306}

In 1869, the first national labor union, the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor, was founded by Uriah S. Stephens, a tailor.   Starting with crafts, it soon opened memberhip to men and women, skilled and unskilled, white and black.   The union advocated an 8-hour work day, abolition of child labor, higher wages, exclusion of chinese workers, and better working conditions.   In 1878, the member was 50,000.   It jumped to 700,000 by 1885.   Membership declined to 100,000 members in 1890 because of the union cooperated with anarchists in their common 8-hour workday movement, but it was falsely associated with the Haymarket Square Riot of May 4, 1886, started by so-called socialists and anarchists.   Membership thereafter continued to decline. ^{Schles 341,361}

The Southern Alliance (National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union) rose in the southwest to fight against land syndicates nad crop futures speculation, and fought for government control of railroads, interstate commerce regulation, government warehouses, and cooperatives.   Some of its ideas became legislation, e.g., Warehouse Act of 1912 and the Commodity Credit Corporation Act of 1933.   Attempts to combine with the Northern Alliance were unsuccessful because of different priorities, e.g., Southern black exclusion and Northern concern of synthetic foods, e.g., margarine. ^{Schles 365}

The first labor legislation in the colonies was the wage ceiling of 2 shillings per day for workers in the building trades.   This act was made by the first session of the Massachusetts Bay colony of assistants led by John Winthrop on August 23, 1630. ^{Schles 44}

On March 31,1840, President Martin Van Buren issues an executive order establishing a 10-hour work day for federal employees in public works jobs. ^{Schles 239}

On June 25, 1868, Congress enacts a law limiting government employees to an 8-hour day.   This law replaces similar ineffectual state laws and will slowly influence working hours in industries. ^{Schles 231}

On June 29, 1886, Congress allows incorporation of trade unions, influenced by the union participation in the political process. ^{Schles 361}